Common Moorhen of the UK and Ireland

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The Common Moorhen (gallinula chloropus) is one of the commonest and most widespread wading birds of Britain and Ireland. They are also known as the Moorhen, the Eurasian Moorhen, the Common Waterhen, the Marsh Hen, common gallinule (north America) and the Water Chicken.

The Moorhen is a pigeon-sized wading bird who is often confused with its cousin, the Coot. Adults measure 32 to 35 cm (or 12.5 to 14 inches) long and weigh between 250 and 420 grams (or 9 to 15 ounces).

Males and females are alike. Adults are nearly black with a white line along the flanks. The white under the tail is conspicuous. The back, wings and tail are tinged with brown. The bill is red with a yellow tip. There is a rounded, red frontal shield on head. The yellow-green legs are long with large toes that allow them to walk on slippery surfaces (eg floating plants). Immature birds are greyish-brown with paler underparts and a greenish bill.

The Moorhen belongs to the Rallidae (or rail) family of birds that includes their cousin the Coot. Their scientific name of Gallinula chloropus means "bird of the marshes". Adults start breeding when they are 1 year of age. The average lifespan of the Moorhen is 3 years.

Moorhens, who are solitary and shy birds, inhabit varying sizes of freshwater areas with plenty of vegetation that include lakes, reservoirs, marshes, streams, gravel pits, small ponds and ditches. Their habitat is both slow or still water in natural or manmade wetlands. They have also adapted to similar habitats in cities (eg St James's Park in London). They are generally found in lowland areas and tend to avoid higher ground and salt water areas.

Moorhens are omnivorous and opportunistic feeders. Their diet includes insects, earthworms, snails, tadpoles, small fish, spiders, berries, seeds, aquatic plants, algae and animals (lizards). Sometimes eggs from other species of birds are eaten that are found in damp ground or the shallow areas of water.

They are solitary feeders who forage for food while walking on water plants, on the ground or sifting food from the surface of the water while swimming. These birds remain near vegetation and are not found in open water or diving. Moorhens have a nervous way of constantly jerking their heads and tails both on land and when swimming in the water. Their strong legs allow them to swim or run for cover if alarmed.

Moorhens are resident birds may be seen in most areas of Britain and Ireland throughout the year. They are absent from the Scottish Highlands, the higher ground in Wales, parts of the south-west and northern Britain and the some western areas of the Republic of Ireland. Resident birds tend to remain in the same place where they hatched. However some fly to different areas at night searching for new pools, ponds etc which may be more suitable. Pairs remain on their territories throughtout the year.

Resident birds are joined wintering Moorhens from northern Europe (Sweden, Netherlands and Denmark). Wintering birds form small groups that feed and roost together on drier, open land that is usually near water and includes meadows, road-side verges, arable land or reedbeds. They may be joined by resident birds if the winter is severe.

Moorhens are adaptable birds who breed in any lowland freshwater body from small farm ponds to the fringes of large lakes with plenty of vegetation. Breeding pairs, who are monogamous, defend their territory against intruders and are far less timid than in other seasons of the year. Females often fight by kicking with their feet when competing for males. Males charge intruders who are near their nest with their head low in the water.

The breeding season is long, from March to August. The female builds a display platform as well as an acutal nest. The display platform is used for courtship and built from late-February onwards. It is made of twigs, reed and other vegetation. The nest is made either on the ground among vegetation, in a hedge, in deep water or high in a tree near water (edge of a lake, in a tussock in marshes). It is a platform of reeds and other green water plants lined with finer grass and leaves that is formed into a shallow or deep bowl.

Six to twelve eggs are laid between April and July which are reddish-buff in colour, spotted with red brown. Eggs hatch after 20 to 21 days and the young are fledged after 40 to 50 days. Both parents look after the young and can rear 2 or 3 broods a year. "Dump-nesting" can occur in the breeding season, when more than one female lays eggs in the same nest. Brood nests are also made when the chicks are born and are similar to nests.

Chicks are often described as little balls of "black fluff" who follow their parents around, paddling frantically after them. The previous years offspring are not chased away by their parents. Young birds help their parents raise younger siblings and are called "nest helpers" ( Taylor and Francis). This type of behaviour is called cooperative breeding. Moorhens are just one of two species that breed cooperatively in Britain and Ireland.

Their natural predators are humans (hunting), foxes, herons and the American Mink. Nests and chicks are vulnerable to predators.

The Moorhen is classified as of Least Concern by IUCN.

The global population is not considered Vulnerable by conservationist groups (such as Birdlife International) due to the wide range of these birds (Europe, Asia, Africa). The European population is considered to be Secure.

The UK population declined by 9% between 1995 and 2011 (RSPB) and are a green listed species of bird. The Breeding Bird Survey reported the Moorhen population increased by 4% in Britain between 2013/14 (BBS - page 12).

The Moorhen is also green listed in Ireland. Birdwatch reported the Moorhen population in Ireland increased between 1998 and 2010 (Birdwatch - page 6).

Moorhens suffer declines in severe, cold winters but make a rapid recovery in the following years.

The increasing numbers of Canada Geese are thought to be responsible for the decline of Moorhens and other species of birds living near them because of competition for food etc. "Every day, they are driving out the other birds from parks and riverbanks. Moorhens and coots are particularly at risk" (Daily Mail).

Other reasons for the decline include wetland drainage, loss of habitat, dredging and removal of bankside vegetation, loss of farm ponds, susceptibility to very cold winters, the predatory American Mink, pollution of their habitat ( Politics.co.uk) and trapped in fishing lines ( Daily Gazette) .

Goosander of the UK and Ireland

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Goosander of the UK and Ireland

The Goosander (mergus merganser) is a large, attractive "sawbill" duck that may be found mostly on freshwater areas of Britain and Ireland. It is also known as the Eurasian Goosander, Eurasian Merganser, European Goosander.

Males and females are not alike. The drake has a glossy green-black head and back and pale salmon-pink underparts in the breeding season. The male has a noticeable mane of feathers on the back of the neck. The thin bill and legs are red. The plumage of the female, who is slightly smaller, is mostly grey, with a chestnut head and white chin. The beak is bright orange with a black tip. The rump and tail are grey.

Females and non-breeding males have crests on their heads, although the crest is shorter in females. Immature birds and non-breeding males resemble females but have a white stripe between the eye and bill.

Males and females also make different calls. The male's call is of a low-pitched croaking and the female makes a harsh "krr" and crackling sound. Adults start breeding when they are 2 years old. The average lifespan of these ducks is 7 years.

The Goosander is the largest member of the "sawbill" family of ducks. "Sawbills" earned their name because of the edges of their beaks have fine serrations, like a saw, that are designed to hold slippery fish. There is a hook at the end of the beak. They resemble their close relative the Red Breasted Merganser but a larger and heavier bird.

Gooseanders, who are sociable ducks, inhabit mostly clear freshwater inland areas (lakes, rivers, reservoirs, flooded gravel pits) throughout the year. They are also found in estuaries, along streams near the coast or on the coast. Breeding takes place inland in wooded areas near water. Most birds are resident although males fly to Norway in late summer for their annual moult.

Their diet is a wide range of small to medium fish (salmon, sandeels, trout, chubb, eels, rudd, tench, perch) from the habitats they are living in. Invertebrates (shellfish, insects and their larvae, snails), crustaceans (crabs, crayfish) and other prey (amphibians) are sometimes taken. They are opportunistic feeders who often forage in large flocks where there are shoals of fish etc and heard them into shallow water. (Cambridge Journals).

Goosanders use a variety of techniques when foraging for food and hunt by sight alone. One of the most frequently used hunting methods is persuit-diving. Goosanders hunt singly or in pairs by constantly putting their heads beneath the water and then diving to depths of 2 to 3 meters in the water usually for short periods of time. They can stay submerged for up to 2 minutes. Fish are eaten both above and below the water. The other most commonly used method is swimming on the surface with their eyes and bill beneath the surface scanning for fish. They chase fish just below the water or dive for them.

They probe "the river-bottom with the bill, to catch hiding fish more or less at random" in the day (Springer). The soft earth of river banks and vegetation along lakes etc are also probed where eels and amphibians are taken.

Sometimes they hunt by floating down a river for a few miles, diving for fish and then flying (or diving) back again. Small groups of can be found feeding on shoals of fish.

The population of the Goosander was mainly restricted to Scotland. Their numbers have increased since the 1970s and can now be seen all year in Scotland, Wales and the north and south-west of England. The first pair were bred in Britain in 1871. The first breeding pair was reported in Ireland in 1969 and disappeared until the mid-1990s. The Goosander is considered to be "one of Ireland's rarest ducks" with only a localised breeding population ( Birdwatch). The breeding population has not expanded and "the numbers breeding in Ireland remained stubbornly low (no more than six pairs in any year" (Birdwatch).

Goosanders in Britain and Ireland are mostly resident birds who may be seen on fresh water lakes, reservoirs, flooded gravel pits etc with fewer on the coast throughout the year. Wintering birds in Wales, Northern England and Scotland are resident breeding birds who only move short distances in winter from their breeding grounds. Resident birds are widespread in winter and are usually seen in small flocks. Communal roosting occurs in the evenings in autumn and winter on large lakes, rivers and islands.

Resident birds are joined in Britain and Ireland by large numbers of wintering birds from Scandinavia and northern Russia. Those found in central and southern England are mostly Goosanders from northern Europe and Russia. Wintering birds tend to inhabit freshwater areas (reservoirs and gravel pits etc).

Their flight is often low, fast and direct with a long and heavy shape. A whistling sound is made when flying.

Courting Goosanders can be seen in small groups along rivers ( Welcome to Scotland). Breeding pairs move inland to fast flowing rivers ( Taylor and Francis), lakes, streams, reservoirs, gravel pits near wooded areas in the spring (mid-March). Nests are made near or sometimes at a distance from from water in the hollows of trees, under rocks or nestboxes. Solitary pairs or small groups of Goosanders may nest together. Sometimes several females may nest in the same tree.

Seven to twelve cream coloured eggs are laid between April and May. Eggs hatch after 30 to 32 days and the young are fledged after 60 to 70 days. Males leave the female when the eggs are being incubated to moult in other areas. Chicks will jump from the nest to the ground and are led by their mother to find food. They forage without their mother's help. Creches of young sometimes occur with one female leading the chicks on foraging trips.

Males moult earlier than females. Most males leave Britain and Ireland in late-summer and migrate to northern Norway to moult their flight feathers. They return from their moulting grounds between October and November. Research in 1985 found that the population of male Goosanders in western Europe migrate and moult in one place, the Tana estuary in northern Norway (Taylor and Francis). Some females moult on their breeding grounds. Others leave their breeding grounds and fly short distances to moult on estuaries and the shores of lakes. Goosanders are flightless for about a month during the moult.

The Goosander's preference for salmon and trout has brought it into the conflict with the commercial fish farms, the game fish industry and recreational anglers who blame it for the decline in fish stocks. Special licences can be obtained from Natural England to cull these ducks as they are not a species of bird included on the General Licence.

Game fish "are all highly acclaimed and generate substantial levels of income for Scotland...There is evidence that these birds can, in some situations, remove large numbers of fish from stocked and natural fisheries" (Bio One). Some rivers in Scotland have been re-stocked with salmon because the "arrival of large numbers of goosander and meganser ducks and predatory fish species, including pike, are thought to be behind the changes" (Herald Scotland).

The global population is not considered to be Vulnerable by conservationist groups (such as Birdlife International) due to the wide range of these birds (Eurasia, North America etc). The European population is considered Secure with the global trend described as increasing.

The Goosander is classified as of Least Concern by IUCN.

The UK population increased by 18% between 2000 and 2009 (RSPB), where they are a green listed species of bird. The Goosander is amber listed in Ireland because of a small breeding population.

It was noted in Scotland that a "marked decline has occurred in the goosander population, which was five times higher in 1982 than it was in 1997"( Scottish Heritage - 2.1.6).

Fewer Goosanders were wintering Britain and Ireland in 2013. The reason given was climate change, with more resident birds remaining in Scandinavia because of warmer winters (BBC).

Other threats include loss of habitat, pollution (petroleum), avian flu, hunting (in countries such as North America and Russia), drowning in fishing nets, climate change and collection of their eggs in places such as Iceland.

Common Ringed Plover of the UK and Ireland

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The Common Ringed Plover (charadrius hiaticula) is small, plump and brightly patterned wading bird with short legs that lives along the coasts of Britain and Ireland. It is also known as the Great Ringed Plover, the sand lark (Scotland) and the Ringed Plover.

Males and females are alike. The upper-parts are grey and the underparts are white. There are black bands across the neck and forehead and a black mask over its eyes. The short bill is orange with a black tip. The short legs are orange-yellow. A broad white wing-stripe is conspicuous when flying. Immature birds have an incomplete breast band, a dark bill and are duller in colour. It is considered to be one of the prettiest waders in Britain and Ireland.

The Common Ringed Plover belongs to the Charadriidae (or Plover) family of bird that includes its cousin, the Lapwing. Adults start breeding when they are 1 year old. The average lifespan of the Common Ringed Plover is 5 years.

Ringed Plovers, who are sociable birds, inhabit open, bare ground or places with little vegetation that includes sandy or shingle beaches, sandbanks, salt marshes and mud-flats in estuaries. Fewer are found inland where they may be seen around bare arable fields, short grassland (pastures), river banks, the shores of lakes and reservoirs, flooded fields and gravel pits. They are often found in small flocks at high tide usually with other waders such as Dunlins.

Breeding takes place on sand or shingle beaches, near sand or inland on arable fields with low vegetation, gravel pits etc. They have moving inland to breed in England and Wales since the 1980s possibly because of the increase in man-made water-bodies (gravel pits, reservoirs etc). Irish Ringed Plovers have also moved to inland bogs in the midlands to breed.

Their diet includes worms (sand and earthworms), shellfish, small crustaceans (shrimps), insects and other invertebrates. Food is picked from bare, flat surfaces such as sandy or muddy shorelines and pastures with short vegetation.

They forage for food by using a run-and-pause method when dash short distances and then stop to pick up titbits. They find worms in the kicking the sand with rapid foot movements or tapping the ground quickly which mimicks raindrops. Foraging takes place both in the day and night.

Ringed Plovers are resident birds who may be seen on all coasts of Britain and Ireland throughout the year. Small numbers are also found inland. Resident birds in Ireland do not migrate. Some from Britain fly south to winter in Europe. A few from Scotland winter in Ireland.

The stronghold of these birds in Britain is "East Anglia’s extensive sandy and shingle beaches between the Thames and the Humber" (Norfolk Biodiversity). They are present in on most coasts of Ireland but there are fewer in the north and south-east.

Resident birds are joined in the autumn by internationally important wintering birds from Scandinavia and Europe. Wintering birds from Canada, Greenland, Iceland and the Baltic (Fennoscandia) pass over on their way to southern locations (West Africa). Some from Europe and the Baltic remain in Britain and Ireland for the winter. Icelandic birds fly over Britain and Ireland to wintering from France south to North Africa. Most autumn migrations take place between August and September and return in the spring between March and May.

"Populations of Ringed Plovers are well-known for their leap-frog migration in which northern breeding populations leap-frog their more southerly-breeding conspecifics on autumn migration and winter further south..why Ringed Plovers have a leap-frog migration pattern is not known..." (Research Gate - page 1).

Wintering and migrating birds inhabit the same areas as resident birds (sand or shingle beaches, sandbanks, mudflats, salt marshes, flooded fields etc). They roost together in flocks near their feeding sites along the shore, sandbanks, bare arable fields and in short vegetation.

Breeding usually takes place between April and July. Pairs nest either singly or small groups. The nest built on the ground on sandy or shingle beaches and mudflats on the coast as well as inland on riverbanks and gravel pits.

Some of the most important breeding areas in Britain are the wide, open sand flats which are known as the Machair in the Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland, the River Twai in Wales ( River Twai), Cemlyn Nature Reserve in Anglesey (Wales), Tices Meadow in Surrey (Birdwatching), Lough Corrib in Galway and Dublin Bay in Ireland. A quarter of the UK’s breeding Ringed Plover nest within the Outer Hebrides in Scotland.

The nest is a slight depression in the ground lined with grass and pebbles. Three to four eggs are laid between April and June which are yellowish in colour, spotted with dark brown. Eggs hatch after 21 to 27 days and the young are fledged after 24 days. Common Ringed Plovers share incubation of the eggs with males incubating the eggs at night (Bio One). Both parents look after the young and can rear 2 or 3 or 3 broods a year.

Intruders near the nest are lured away by the adult birds feigning an injured wing and flying off once the intruder is a distance from the nest.

The global population is not considered to be Vulnerable by conservationist groups (such as Birdlife International) due to the wide range of these birds (Europe, Asia, Africa, North America the Arctic etc). The global population is described as decreasing. The European population is considered Secure.

The Ringed Plover is classified as of Least Concern by IUCN.

The UK population declined 31% between 2000 and 2009 (RSPB) and were an amber listed species of bird. It was amber listed in Britain because of a moderate decline of 25% to 50% of in the breeding population over 25 years. The Ringed Plover was upgraded to a red listed species of bird in Britain in 2010.

The British Trust for Ornithology reported a decline in the Common Ringed Plover population of 37% in Britain between 1984 and 2007, with the greatest declines in inland areas. Reasons given for the decline are predation by hedgehogs (Wader Tales) and human disturbance (usage of beaches when nesting) ( BTO). There has also been a decline in the wintering population.

The Common Ringed Plover is an amber listed species of bird in Ireland. Birdwatch reported a decline of 23% between 1972 and 2013 ( Irish Examiner).

Reasons given for the decline include oil pollution, avain botulism, human disturbance (tourism on the coast (Springer), construction projects), drainage of their wetland habitat (agriculture changes), overgrown vegetation of their open habitats, an increase in their natural predators (foxes, American mink etc) and climate change ( rising sea level causing loss of nest because of tidal flooding).

Sanderling of the UK and Ireland

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The Sanderling (calidris alba) is a small wading bird from Siberia that winters along the coasts of Britain and Ireland. Wintering Sanderlings from Greenland fly over when migrating to and from their wintering grounds in West Africa. It is also known as the Ruddy Plover and Sand Runner (Ireland).

The Sanderling is about the size of a Dunlin and is much whiter than other waders in winter. Adults measure 20 to 21 cm (or 7.9 to 8.3 inches) and weigh between 50 and 60 grams (or 1.8 and 2.1 pounds).

Males and females are alike. The upperparts are pale grey and the underparts are white in winter with a dark shoulder patch. In the summer, the plumage on the upperparts, head and breast are mottled with black, white, grey and chestnut colours. The bill is short and stout. A white wing-bar can be seen during flight. The legs are black. Immature birds are mottled with black on the upperparts with some buff on the breast.

It belongs to the Scholopacidae (or Sandpiper) family of birds that includes its cousin, the Dunlin. Adults start breeding when they are 2 years old. The average lifespan of these birds is 7 years.

Sanderlings, who are sociable and active birds, inhabit the open coast and includes sandy beaches, mudflats, rocky shores, coastal pools, saltmarshes and estuaries. Very few are found inland on lakes and reservoirs. They often form large flock with other waders, such as the Ringed Plover, on sandy beaches or mud-flats.

Most members of the Sandpiper family of birds have a fourth toe (hind toe) but the Sanderling differs as it has only 3 toes (or no hind toe). The toes are also separated. This adaptation allows it to run and walk quickly on firm surfaces.

The diet includes marine worms (ragworm), molluscs, insects and small crustaceans (sandhoppers). Seeds, nuts and some plant material (roots, stems) are also eaten. They are usually seen foraging for food and roosting together in small flocks, often with other waders such as Dunlins.

Sanderlings are hyperactive birds who use a "bicycling" action as they run across the sand and stop for a few seconds to probe the ground or pick up bits of food. Foraging also takes place along the edge of waves of a beech, quickly snaching food as the waves retreat and running away as it moves in.

Wintering Sanderlings from Siberia arrive in Britain and Ireland between August and September. Sanderlings from north-east Greenland use Britian and Ireland as a stopover point when migrating to and from their wintering grounds in West Africa. It has been found that some birds stay for the winter whereas before it was thought that they were birds of passage. Wintering birds can be seen on estuaries and along the coast. They return to their breeding grounds between May and June. Their flight is fast and low, often in well coordinated groups.

The most important wintering sites in Enlgand include the Ribble (Lancashire), Morecambe Bay (Kent), the Wash (Norfolk), Dee Estuary(Wales) and Teeside ( High Beam). They may be seen Dublin Bay and Akeragh Lough in County Kerry in Ireland.

The Sanderling Project is currently studying these birds so that certain aspects of their lives (eg migration) may be answered ( International Wader Group).

Sanderlings breed in the Arctic regions of Siberia and Greenland. They do not breed Britain and Ireland.

The global population is not considered Vulnerable by conservationists (such as Birdlife International) due to the wide range of these birds (Europe, Asia, Africa, North America etc). The European population is considered Secure.

The Sanderling is classified as of Least Concern by IUCN.

The UK population increased by 34% between 2000 and 2009 (RSPB) where they are an amber listed species of bird. The WeBS reported an increase in the population of Sanderlings in the UK between 2012 and 2013 ( WeBS - page 11). The Sanderling is green listed in Ireland.

The main threats are human disturbance (dog walking, motor vehicles), changes in nutrient levels of water (eg changes in sewerage treatment), commercial overfishing of shellfish (mussels and periwinkles), estuarine development, land reclamation ( Durham Bio-diversity), pollution and avian flu.

Black-Throated Diver of the UK and Ireland

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The Black-Throated Diver (gavia arctica) is an elegant, medium-sized diving bird that may be seen along the coasts of Britian and Ireland in the winter. Small number of these divers breed in Scotland but do not breed in Ireland. It is also known as the Black-Throated Loon and the Arctic Loon in North America.

The Black-Throated Diver is distinguished by its white flank, a slightly rounded head, a thin, straight bill and narrow body. It is the least common of the three species of divers that inhabit Britain and Ireland. Adults measure 60 to 70 cm (or 23.6 to 27.6 inches) long and weigh between 2 and 3 kilograms (or 4.4 and 6.6 pounds). The wingspan is 1.1 to 1.3 meters (or 3.6 to 4.3 feet).

Males and females are alike. In the summer, the head and the hindneck is pale grey with a black patch on the foreneck bordered on each side by black and white stripes. The mantle is chequered with black and white. The plumage is duller in the winter with a lighter crown and a grey-brown hindneck. The upperparts are black. There is a white patch on the flank which is distinctive. The slender, straight bill is grey or whitish with a black tip and is dagger-shaped. Immature birds resemble the adults in winter but have a brown hindneck and whitish scaling on the upperparts.

The Black-Throated Diver belongs to the Gaviidae family of birds that includes its cousins the Red-Throated Diver and the Great Northern Diver. It is larger than the Red-Throated Diver and smaller than the Great Northern Diver. There is often confusion between Red-Throated Diver and Black-Throated Diver in the winter.

Adults start breeding when they are 2 or 3 years of age. They are long-lived birds but their average lifespan is generally unknown. The oldest recorded bird was 28 years of age.

Black-Throated Divers, who are solitary birds, inhabit salt-water areas in winter that include sheltered coasts, shallow bays, large estuaries, large coastal lakes and rarely inland (reservoirs). Inshore waters along the coast are preferred and are not often found offshore. They fly from the coast to large, deep freshwater lakes and lochs with small islands in the breeding season. These divers are not often found near salt-water environments in the breeding season. Small numbers breed in north and north-west Scotland. Young birds remain in coastal areas until they are able to breed.

Their diet is mainly fish (sandeels, herring, sprats, minnows, flatfish) and crustacesans although amphibians and sometimes insects will also be eaten. Fish are hunted by diving from the surface of the water. They forage for food either singly or in small groups who swim close together and low in the water.

It is a streamlined and skilful diver with waterproof plumage. The large, webbed feet are set far back from its body which allows it to propel itself from the surface and under the water. The wings are sometimes used to swim beneath the sea etc. They are able to dive to depths of 3 to 6 meters (9.8 to 19.7 feet) and remain underwater for 2 minutes although 50 seconds is average. It usually reappears quite far away from where it dived.

Black-Throated Divers are rare, resident birds that may be seen along the coast of Britain in winter, particularly the north-west of Scotland and Cornwall. It is absent from the Orkney and the Shetland Islands and rarely seen inland in winter. It is a scarce winter visitor in both Northern and the Republic of Ireland. It is thought some resident birds fly from Scotland to winter in Northern Ireland. Wintering birds from Scandinavia can be seen between October and April. Small numbers of Black-Throated Divers may be seen flying eastwards through the English Channel in April and May. Sandy bays and inlets along the coast are preferred by wintering birds.

The flight of these birds is strong and direct and can fly long distances. The wings are short in comparison to their bodies and must run over the surface of the water to gain enough speed to become airborne.

Black-Throated Divers only breed in north-west Scotland and do not breed in England, Wales or Ireland. Breeding pairs are monogamous and usually mate for life. They stay together in the winter and return to their breeding grounds in April or May. Males and females make long, wailing and yodelling calls in the spring and summer but are silent in winter. A territory is established where nesting and foraging takes place.

The breeding habitat is restricted to large, deep, freshwater lochs with small islands and little or no disturbance. The nests is built are on islands because it is safe from predators. Specially designed rafts floating in lochs are also used. Foraging takes place in shallow water, usually near the nest. Chicks are fed mainly fish (Wiley online Library).

Nests are built near the waterline because Black-Throated Divers cannot walk very well on land. The nest is a mound of vegetation. Rafts were placed on lochs in Scotland by the RSPB and used by nesting pairs. It was found that nests on rafts produced a high survival rate for chicks (Taylor and Francis). The reason for the increase is because nests made near shores are more susceptible to flooding and changing water levels than nests built on rafts.

One or two eggs are laid in May or June which are olive-brown in colour spotted with black. Eggs hatch after 29 days and chicks are fledged after 27 to 32 days. Chicks can swim almost immediately after hatching. Both parents look after the young who sleep on their parent backs. The young remain on the surface of the water while their parents dive for food.

Adults and young birds leave their breeding grounds for the coast between August and September. A post-breeding moult occurs when these birds are flightless. Moulting occurs on the coast (sheltered bays etc) in Scotland.

The global population is not considered Vulnerable by conservationist groups due to its extremely wide range (Eurasia, Arctic, North America). The population in Europe is described as declining (Birdlife International)

The Black-Throated Diver is classified as of Least Concern by IUCN.

The breeding population has recently increased in Scotland. "Since the introduction of the raft programme in the late 1980s, the Black-throated diver breeding population has rebounded from a low of 180 pairs to 240 pairs in 2012" (Wildlife Extra). The Black-Throated Diver is an amber listed species of bird in both Britain and Ireland, where it is only a winter visitor.

The Black-Throated Diver was included on the list of birds that are "the most threatened and requiring conservation action under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP)" in 2012 (Defra).

The European population of Black-Throated Divers was reported to have halved between 1970 and 2007 ( Telegraph).

Anglers in boats and tourism could affect the breeding population as they are very susceptible to disturbance when nesting. Egg collectors and an increase in natural predators (Hooded Crows, foxes) could also cause declines ( Wiley online Library).

Reasons given for the decline are a susceptibility to human disturbance when nesting, drowning in fishing nets, disturbance by shipping vessels (causing a fragmentation and loss of suitable feeding and resting habitats (Helcom - page 3) illegal egg collecting, wind farms, pollution from oil and lower fish stocks because of commercial fishing.

Long-Tailed Duck of the UK and Ireland

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The Long-Tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) is a migratory diving duck (from mostly Greenland, Iceland and Russia) which lives along the coast of Britain and Ireland during the winter.

The main characteristic of the drake is a long, pointed tail to two fine points. The female has a much shorter tail. During the winter months the head and neck of the male is white with a dark patch on the cheek as well as a dark breast and white body. In the summer, the male has a dark head, neck and back with a white cheek patch. The plumage of the female is browner with a white head (with a dark crown) and neck during the winter. The head is dark in summer.

The average lifespan of the Long-Tailed Duck is 15.3 years. The oldest recorded was 22 years of age. Adults breed when they are approximately 2 years of age.

The Long-Tailed Duck is a gregarious duck in winter, often forming large flocks on rocky coasts and inland in places such as lakes and marshes.

Their diet includes freshwater and salt water shellfish, seed, grain, eggs, freshwater insects and larvae, fish and many kinds of plankton which they dive for.

These Ducks forage longer than other Ducks (up to 80% of the day) and will hunt for food quite far from the shore. They are one of the deepest diving ducks and can dive up to 60 meters (200 feet) for food.

The natural predators of the Long-Tailed Ducks are foxes and gulls, such as mew gulls.

Long-Tailed Ducks do not breed in Britain and Ireland. Breeding areas in Europe are restricted to the Arctic Circle, Scandinavia and Russia.

Britain holds internationally significant numbers of wintering Long-Tailed Ducks. Long-Tailed Ducks winter mostly in northern Scotland, Orkney and Shetland with fewer in the northern areas of Ireland (RSPB Handbook of British Birds). A rapid decline has been noted in key sites such as Moray Firth where the population "crashed" in 2007/8.

The global population is considered Vulnerable by conservationists (such as Birdlife International) due to a severe decline since the 1990s. The population in the Baltic Sea, where the majority of the global population winters, has declined by 65% in 16 years. It is estimated one million Long-Tailed Duck "mysteriously disappeared" in the Baltic region in the past two decades.

The Long-Tailed Duck was classified as Vulnerable by IUCN in 2012.

The populations in Britian and Ireland are similarly affected although the most rapid decline in their numbers have occurred in the Baltic. The Long-Tailed Duck is green listed in the UK and Ireland. Conservationists in Britain are of the opinion these Ducks face an uncertain future (Daily Express).

The exact reason for the decline is unknown but includes susceptibility to oil pollution, fishing nets, poisoning from lead and mercury, loss of habitat, avian flu, hunting in areas such as Denmark and offshore wind farm development.

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